The Bodhisattva’s Cultivation of the Six Perfections
The story of Sumedha in the Buddhavamsa narrative includes his subsequent reflections on the perfections (S. paramitas; P. parami) that must be cultivated to attain buddhahood. The ten perfections listed in the Buddhavamsa are:
generosity (or almsgiving)
morality (or virtue)
renunciation
wisdom (or understanding)
energy
patience
truthfulness
determination (or resolution)
loving-kindness
equanimity
In the Path of Purification by Buddhaghosa, the following passage describes the cultivation of these ten perfections by the “Great Beings” (S. mahasattvas) or bodhisattvas:
When he has understood thus that the special efficacy of each resides respectively in “having beauty as the highest,” etc., he should besides understand how they bring to perfection all the good states beginning with giving. For the Great Beings’ minds retain their balance by giving preference to beings’ welfare, by dislike of beings’ suffering, by desire for the various successes achieved by beings to last, and by impartiality towards all beings. And to all beings, they give gifts, which are a source of pleasure, without discriminating thus: “It must be given to this one; it must not be given to this one.” And in order to avoid doing harm to beings they undertake the precepts of virtue. They practice renunciation for the purpose of perfecting their virtue. They cleanse their understanding for the purpose of non-confusion about what is good and bad for beings. They constantly arouse energy, having beings’ welfare and happiness at heart. When they have acquired heroic fortitude through supreme energy, they become patient with beings’ many kinds of faults. They do not deceive when promising “We shall give you this; we shall do this for you.” They are unshakably resolute upon beings’ welfare and happiness. Through unshakable loving-kindness they place them first [before themselves]. Through equanimity, they expect no reward. Having thus fulfilled the [ten] perfections, these [divine abidings] then perfect all the good states classed as the ten powers, the four kinds of fearlessness, the six kinds of knowledge not shared [by disciples], and the eighteen states of the Enlightened One. This is how they bring to perfection all the good states beginning with giving.
IX.24 (The Path of Purification: Visuddhimagga translated by Bhikkhu Nanamoli, pp. 319-320)
The ten perfections of Theravada Buddhism overlaps the list of six perfections in Mahayana sutras but is not identical, though a later Theravadin commentator named Acharya Dhammapala wrote a treatise in the twelfth century in which he showed the correlation between the two lists. Generosity, morality, patience, energy, and wisdom match those five perfections in the Mahayana list of six perfections. Only the perfection of meditative absorption in the Mahayana list seems unaccounted for by the ten perfections. According to Acharya Dhammapala, renunciation, truthfulness, determination, loving-kindness, and equanimity can be considered aspects of the six perfections. Renunciation can be considered an aspect of the perfection of morality, an aspect of the perfection of meditative absorption, and generally as a wholesome quality that contributes to all six perfections. Truthfulness can be considered an aspect of morality (e.g. abstain from lying) and also an aspect of wisdom because it is to know what is true. Determination is an aspect of all six perfections. Loving-kindness is something that can contribute to and be developed by meditative absorption. Finally, equanimity is part of meditative absorption and also wisdom.
The Revealing the Profound Secrets Sutra features the following dialogue between Shakyamuni Buddha and World Voice Pervicer about the six perfections. In this dialogue, an additional four perfections are discussed as assistants to the six. They are the perfections of skillful means, vows, power, and knowledge.
World Voice Perceiver Bodhisattva again addressed the Buddha, saying, “World Honored One, how many kinds of training are there for bodhisattvas?”
The Buddha said to World Voice Perceiver Bodhisattva, “Good son, in brief, there are six kinds of training for bodhisattvas: generosity, morality, patience, energy, meditative absorption, and the wisdom to reach the other shore.”
World Voice Perceiver Bodhisattva again addressed the Buddha, saying, “World Honored One, of these six kinds of training, how many are included in the higher training of morality, how many are included in the higher training of mental [concentration], and how many are included in the higher training of wisdom?”
The Buddha said to World Voice Perceiver Bodhisattva, “Good son, one should know that the initial three are included in the higher training of morality. Meditative absorption is the only kind that is included in the higher training of mental [concentration]. Wisdom is included in the higher training of wisdom. I explain that energy is included in them all.”
World Voice Perceiver Bodhisattva again addressed the Buddha, saying, “World Honored One, of these six kinds of training, how many are included in the accumulation of merit, how many are included in the accumulation of wisdom?”
The Buddha said to World Voice Perceiver Bodhisattva, “Good son, if you are talking about what is included in the higher training of morality, they are included in the accumulation of merit. If you are talking about what is included in the higher training of wisdom, that is included in the accumulation of wisdom. I explain that energy and meditative absorption are included in both.”
World Voice Perceiver Bodhisattva again addressed the Buddha, saying, “World Honored One, in terms of these six kinds of training, how should a Bodhisattva practice?”
The Buddha said to World Voice Perceiver Bodhisattva, “Good son, through five aspects you should put these trainings into practice: The first is that they must have a courageous understanding by faith in the teaching of the subtle True Dharma of the paramitas within the bodhisattva treasury. The second is that they must energetically practice the wondrous knowledge attained by learning, reflecting, and cultivating through the ten kinds of Dharma practices. The third is to safeguard the awakening mind. The fourth is to be close to true good friends. The fifth is to ceaselessly and energetically cultivate wholesome qualities.”
World Voice Perceiver Bodhisattva again addressed the Buddha, saying, “World Honored One, for what reason have you established that there are only these six for training?”
The Buddha said to World Voice Perceiver Bodhisattva, “Good son, for two reasons. The first reason is to bring benefit to all sentient beings. The second reason is to cure all defilements. You should know that the first three bring benefit to all sentient beings. The latter three cure all defilements.
“As for the first three bringing benefit to all sentient beings: I say that all bodhisattvas, due to generosity, embrace the necessities for life and thereby bring benefit to sentient beings. Due to morality, they do not harm, oppress, or disturb anyone and thereby bring benefit to sentient beings. Due to patience, if they encounter harm, oppression, or disturbance they can endure it and thereby bring benefit to sentient beings.
“As for the latter three curing all defilements: I say that all bodhisattvas, Due to energy, although they have not completely subdued all defilements and have not entirely eradicated all latent tendencies, are still able to vigorously cultivate all wholesome qualities. Their defilements cannot disturb the cultivation of wholesome practices. Due to meditative absorption, their defilements are forever subdued. Due to wisdom they permanently destroy the latent tendencies.”
World Voice Perceiver Bodhisattva again addressed the Buddha, saying, “World Honored One, for what reason have you established that there are four more paramitas?”
The Buddha said to World Voice Perceiver Bodhisattva, “Good son, it is because they assist the first six kinds of paramitas. That is to say, all bodhisattvas embrace sentient beings through the first three kinds of paramitas by using the skillful means of various means of attraction and establishing them in wholesome qualities. Therefore I say that skillful means is the paramita that assists the first three kinds.
“If the bodhisattvas in the present world have many defilements they will be incapable of ceaseless cultivation. Due to their inferior aspirations and a determination for inferior realms, they are incapable of being settled in their minds. Due to their inability to hear and practice the bodhisattva treasury, their meditative absorptions cannot give rise to supramundane wisdom. However, they will have accumulated a small amount of inferior and meager merit. So that their future defilements will be minimal they will give rise to righteous vows. This is called the vows paramita. Due to their vows, their defilements will become negligible and they will be able to cultivate energy. Therefore I say that the vows paramita participates in the energy paramita and assists it.
“If the bodhisattvas in the present world draw near to good people and hear the True Dharma with systematic attention, they will be able to take an inferior aspiration and transform it into a superior aspiration, and they will attain a determination for superior realms. This is called the power paramita. Therefore I say that the power paramita participates in the meditative absorption paramita and assists it.
“If the bodhisattvas hear the bodhisattva treasury, they can easily cultivate and develop meditative absorption. This is called the knowledge pararmita. Because of this knowledge, they will be able to give rise to supramundane wisdom. Therefore I say that the knowledge paramita participates in the wisdom paramita and assists it.”
World Voice Perceiver Bodhisattva again addressed the Buddha, saying, “World Honored One, for what reason do you explain the six paramitas in this order?”
“The Buddha said to World Voice Perceiver Bodhisattva, “Good son, it is because each is the basis for giving rise to the next. That is to say, if bodhisattvas renounce their bodies and wealth, they can uphold pure morality. Having protected morality, they soon cultivate patience. Having cultivated patience they give rise to energy. Having given rise to energy they accomplish meditative absorption. With meditative absorption, they are able to quickly attain supramundane wisdom. Therefore, I say that the paramitas are [cultivated] in this order.”
According to the Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana Treatise, bodhisattvas practice the six perfections because they know that they are in accord with the qualities of the Dharma-nature, the true nature of reality.
Because they know the Dharma-nature is essentially without covetousness, they practice dana paramita accordingly. Because they know the Dharma-nature is without defilement and separate from the five excessive desires, they should practice shila paramita accordingly. Because they know the Dharma-nature is without suffering, ill-will, or vexation, they practice kshanti paramita accordingly. Because they know the Dharma-nature is without the marks of body or mind and separate from indolence, they practice virya paramita accordingly. Because they know the Dharma-nature is constant, determined, and essentially without distraction, they practice dhyana paramita accordingly. Because they know the Dharma-nature is essentially illumination and separate from the darkness of ignorance, they practice dhyana paramita accordingly.
T1666, 9.581a19-a26
The Great Perfection of Wisdom Treatise attributed to Nagarjuna, discusses the six perfections in great detail. It also provides a brief description of them and tells us which of the previous lifetimes of Shakyamuni Buddha each of them was perfected in. This explanation and list of exemplars can be found here. Here is my own translation:
There are six paramitas. What are these six? The perfection of generoity, the perfection of morality, the perfection of patience, the perfection of meditative absorption, and the perfection of wisdom.
Question: How is the perfection of generosity fulfilled?
Answer: [It is fulfilled] when all acts of generosity are unhindered and without obstruction. One can even give one's own body unsparingly. For example, King Shibi gave his body to a dove. [I am omitting the full story told in 87c29-88c26] It is by acts such as these that the perfection of generosity is fulfilled.
How is the perfection of morality fulfilled?
Answer: [It is fulfilled] when one does not hesitate to sacrifice their life to uphold the pure precepts. For example, King Shrutasoma, for the sake of King Kalmashapada, was willing even to give up his life to avoid breaking the precepts. [I am omitting the full story told in 89a01-89b10] It is by acts such as these recounted in the jataka tales of the Buddha’s past lives that shila paramita is fulfilled.
Question: How is the perfection of patience fulfilled?
Answer: [It is fulfilled] when someone comes to insult, beat, cut, flay, dismember, or take one's life, and one does not give rise to hatred. For example, when King Kali severed his hands, feet, ears, nose, and heart, Bhikshu Kshanti remained steadfast and unmoved.
Question: How is the perfection of energy fulfilled?
Answer: [It is fulfilled] when one has a mind of great diligence. For example, Great Generosity Bodhisattva, for the sake of all, vowed to empty the great ocean by himself and make it completely dry, remaining steadfast and unyielding. Another example would be Pushya Buddha who stood on one leg for seven days and nights without blinking.
Question: How is the perfection of meditative absorption fulfilled?
Answer: [It is fulfilled] when one has mastered all non-Buddhist meditative absorptions. For example, Shankaracharya Rishi sat in dhyana without inhaling or exhaling for so long that a bird laid its egg in the coil of his topknot and he remained without moving or shaking until the baby bird was old enough to fly away.
Question: How is the perfection of wisdom fulfilled?
Anwer: [It is fulfilled] when the bodhisattva’s great mind can reflect and analyze. For example, the brahmin Govinda, as prime minister, divided the great territory of Jambudvipa into seven parts. Various large cities, small cities, villagers, and their people were apportioned into these seven parts. This is prajna paramita.
This is how the six perfections of bodhisattvas are fulfilled.
T1509.25.87c25-891b25 (The original transliterates the Sanskrit names for the perfections into Chinese. I have simply translated them into English.)